Glossary
abstract language
Expression that signifies a concept, quality or idea rather than material or physical reality. (Opposite of concrete language)
abstract linguistic formulations
The use of expressions and structures to communicate abstract ideas.
aesthetic properties of language
Features that turn attention from the content of a message towards the way in which the message is formulated, often creating new insights and impressions
argument
Discourse that is intended to persuade or convince; because of the polemic nature of argument, one can expect to find a significant number and variety of connectors and sophisticated scaffolding devices that facilitate elaboration, detailing and the incorporation of examples for a cogent and cohesive organization of ideas.
aspect
A verbal category that refers to some characteristic of the activity or state of a verb. It indicates if an action or state is viewed as completed or in progress (I went/I was going), instantaneous or enduring (The sun came out/The sun was shining), momentary or habitual (They vacationed at the shore/They used to vacation at the shore). Aspect is often indicated by prefixes, suffixes, infixes, phonetic changes in the root verb, use of auxiliaries.
authentic text
Oral and written communication produced by native language users and directed to an audience of native language users in the target culture, such as a newspaper article. This contrasts with a text that is created for learners in the target language solely for instructional or assessment purposes, such as a textbook reading passage.
breakdown
Deterioration of language when a writer or speaker lacks the appropriate linguistic ability to produce an adequate response.
circumlocution
The use of language that one does know in order to explain a specific word that one does not know.
code-switching
Switching from one language to another to complete an idea, thought, or sentence, often when one lacks the word or phrase in the language one started off in.
cogent argument
A type of discourse that is convincing or believable by virtue of forcible, clear or incisive presentation.
cognates
Words between languages that have a common origin and are therefore readily understood. For example, the French word “leçon” and the English word “lesson.”
cohesive devices
Language components that link ideas for smooth flow within and among sentences and paragraphs, such as conjunctions, relative pronouns, pronoun substitutions (subject, verb), adverbs of time, subordinate clauses.
concrete language
Language that is used to refer to particular persons, places and objects.
connected discourse
Coherent, sequential speech or writing.
connected sentences
A series or string of sentences or text that is topically related. Unlike paragraphs sentences are interchangeable; altering the order of the sentences does not affect the meaning of the message.
contextual clues
Hints within the communication or its context that facilitate the comprehension of unfamiliar words.
conventions of language
Matters of implicit mutual agreement among language users such as grammar and vocabulary. Such agreement is necessary for successful communication.
cultural framework
A term used to describe traditions, value systems, myths, and symbols that are common in a given society.
cultural references
Allusions to shared ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge of a particular culture/society.
description
The verbal representation of a person, place, thing, event, or process.
discourse
Unit of structured speech or writing.
discrete sentences
Stand-alone sentences that lack further organization, such as into paragraphs.
distract
Errors that focus the attention of the native interlocutor on the form rather than on the meaning of the message.
economy of expression
The use of the most precise and expressive words and phrases, thus eliminating the need for excess description, wordiness, jargon, or circumlocution.
elaboration
The addition of more detail and specificity in the exposition of a particular topic.
extended discourse
The extensive treatment of a topic that results in connected paragraphs; a communicative building process in both form and meaning.
extralinguistic
Not included in the language itself, such as a visual or contextual clue that supports understanding.
false cognates
Words between languages that appear to have a common origin and thus the same meaning, but do not. For example the French word “anniversaire” (birthday) and the English word “anniversary.”
fluency
The flow in spoken or written language as perceived by the listener or reader. Flow is made possible by clarity of expression, the acceptable ordering of ideas, use of vocabulary and syntax appropriate to the context.
formal correspondence
For example: business letter, professional report, etc.
formal settings
For example: academic conferences, the professional workplace.
formal/informal writing
Features of writing (format, punctuation, choice of vocabulary) that reflect different audiences and purposes for communication.
formulaic
Constituting or containing a verbal formula or set form of words such as “How are you?/Fine, thank you.” “Thanks very much./You’re welcome.”
functional language ability
A language user's ability to accomplish real world communicative tasks such as handling a simple social transaction or resolving a situation with a complication.
generic vocabulary
Words and expressions that serve equally well in a variety of categories and contexts. Such vocabulary is readily intelligible to most people, but does not normally deepen meaning. See also specialized vocabulary.
genre
Any category of art, music, film, literature, etc., based on a set of stylistic criteria.
grammatical
Correct linguistic form or structure.
hypothetical discourse
Language used to speculate or express conjecture.
idiom
A common figurative expression separate from the literal meaning of the component words.
informal settings
For example: in the home, with friends, with family, casual everyday situations.
interlocutors
The person(s) with whom one is speaking; a conversation partner.
intonation
The rise and fall in pitch of the voice in speech.
lexical
Of or relating to the words or the vocabulary of a language as distinguished from its grammar and structure.
low-frequency structures
Complex language constructions that are seldom utilized or required in a given language in its less formal expression, but often necessary in the most formal types of high-level communicative tasks such as persuading and hypothesizing.
narrative
The relating of a story or account of events, experiences, etc., whether true or fictitious, told in a logical and chronological order.
non-alphabetic symbols
Those elements of meaning that appear in both Roman and non-Roman languages that indicate stress, punctuation, syllabification; including ideographs and pictograms. ( ? $ ) * + 8.
nuance
A subtle or slight degree of difference, as in meaning, feeling, or tone; a gradation.
oral discourse
Spoken communication.
paragraph
A self-contained, cohesive unit of spoken or written discourse that generally consists of multiple sentences linked by internal organization and connectors.
paraphrase
An alternative way of communicating a similar message.
persuasive discourse
Language that attempts to convince the reader or listener to adopt an idea, attitude, or action.
proficiency
One's functional language ability.
pun
A form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect.
recombinations
The ways in which speakers and writers put together linguistic elements they have learned (for example, words, phrases, sentences) to create an original message.
redundancy
The repetition of linguistic information.
reflective writing
Written material that is planned and organized through the entire writing process. This type of writing is generally necessary to produce texts at high proficiency levels.
register
The level of formality or informality used in a specific context for a specific audience.
rephrasing
To restate or rewrite in a new, clearer or different way.
rhetorical structures
Devices of language that create a literary effect such as personification, understatement, metaphor, hyperbole.
specialized vocabulary
Words, expressions, technical terms, etc., that are meaningful to members of a specific group or field of study or endeavor.
spontaneous writing
Writing that is produced when preparation and production need to occur at the same time. It does not allow sufficient opportunity for revision, rewriting, or editing.
strings of sentences
A series of isolated or discrete sentences typically referring to a given topic but not grammatically or syntactically connected.
syllabic writing system
A writing system that uses symbols to represent syllables rather than individual sounds (such as letters). The Japanese writing system is syllabic.
syntactic
The principles and rules that govern the construction of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc.
tailoring of language
Adjusting language so that it is the appropriate register for a particular individual or audience.
text modality
The purpose for which a text is written. For example, there is the instructive mode that refers to texts that instruct by communicating factual information (newspaper report), and there is the evaluative mode that refers to texts that make evaluative statements (that is judgments) with both factual and abstract content (newspaper editorial).
time frames
General periods of time, past, present, or future, however, these may be indicated in a particular language.
time markers
Words that indicate the time frame of an event such as adverbs or adverbial phrases such as ‘yesterday,’ ‘two years ago’.
writing protocols
A set of language-specific guidelines used by writers, for example, in English, an essay begins with a topic sentence and always has a concluding paragraph.